Southern Mexico: Discovery of 1400 year old tomb in Oaxaca.

Carving of an owl, signfying both death and night.
On the lintel above the entrance to the tomb.

Entrance to the Zapotec tomb in San Pablo Huitzo.
Oaxaca, southern Mexico

 News broke last week that archaeologists in southern Mexico have made the ‘discovery of the decade’ after unearthing an ancient burial chamber dating back an incredible 1,400 years. It is a Zapotec tomb located in San Pablo Huitzo in the central valleys of Oaxaca, constructed in stone during the era of the Zapotec civilization whose people were known as the Be’ena’a, or Cloud People because originally, they believed that their ancestors had descended from the clouds where their souls would return after death, as spirits; the Zapotecs dominated the region during the pre-Hispanic era. Dating from approximately 600 CE, the tomb has remained hidden for over a millennium and astonishingly, retains a remarkable level of preservation. The Zapotecs were a foundational indigenous society which flourished in the valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica, now southern Mexico, from 500 BC, mainly dying out around

Tomb 104 at Monte Alban, 200-500 AD. Example of early
Zapotec funeral art with sculptures and murals.

1521 AD after the arrival of the Spanish. They are recognized as having developed early writing systems, a 260-day calendar and a highly centralized state with a capital at Monte Alban which dominated the region for centuries. They created a socially stratified society with Kings at the apex followed in descending order by priests, soldiers, artisans and commoners below. The Zapotecs were economically competitive and formed successful trading relationships with other Mesoamerican cultures like the Olmecs and the Mayans. The Zapotec civilisation declined noticeably around 900 A.D. but did not completely disappear as the culture persists today when around 400,000 remain in central Mexico. But it did have a centuries-long and gradual decline which culminated in the 16th century, after flourishing from around 700BCE, brought to an end by the Spanish Conquest in the early 15th century. One source quotes the critical end years to 1521-1527.

A sculpture of a man's head with the face of a Zapotec lord
inside the head of the giant owl.

The site is home to multi-coloured murals featuring symbols associated with power and death. At the threshold to the burial chamber there are carvings of two human figures holding various artefacts in their hands, considered by archaeologists to have been the guardians of the tomb. Among the many well-preserved details is a sculpture of a giant owl, signifying both death and night, which sits above the entrance to the burial chamber. A sculpture of a man’s head with the face of a Zapotec lord, can be seen inside the owl’s beak, possibly representing the individual who was buried there or perhaps, a revered ancestor. The doorway is framed by a stone threshold and lintel above which is a frieze of engraved slabs of ancient calendrical names. Inside the burial chamber itself is an extraordinary mural in white, green, red and blue, showing a procession of people walking in the direction of the tomb entrance, carrying bags of copal, a tree resin burned as incense during the ceremonies.  .

Zapotec tomb carving

Mexico’s Culture Secretary, Claudia Curiel de Icaza, underlined the message from the President, Claudia Scheinbaum who highlighted the importance of the discovery. De Icaza said how the tomb is an
‘exceptional discovery due to its level of conservation and for what it tells us about Zapotec culture and its social organization, funeral rituals and belief system, all preserved by the architecture and the murals. It is a compelling example of Mexico's ancient grandeur which is now being researched, protected and shared with society."

 A multi-disciplinary team from the Institute of Anthropology and History [INAH] is now working to protect the site and conduct further research. Their most urgent work includes stabilizing the murals which, despite their miraculous preservation, are nonetheless, in a fragile state due to the impact of 1400 years of withstanding tree roots, insects and increasingly rapid changes in environmental conditions.

 

  

Sample of Zapotec tomb mural art.

Holocaust Memorial Day: January 27th, 2026

 

Inside the Auschwitz Extermination Camp 1942

The Remembrance Day date for honouring the Holocaust was chosen to coincide with the date when

Anne's passport photo, June 1942

 Auschwitz was liberated on Jan 27^th,1945. Among the 8,000 remaining prisoners released, was Otto Frank, desperately ill like so many others. Otto was the only one of the eight people who hid in the Annexe [see below] to survive the war. Near the end of his life, he reflected, “I am now almost ninety and my strength is slowly failing. Still, the task I received from Anne continues to restore my energy; to struggle for reconciliation and human rights." The recent celebration of the Holocaust Memorial Day brought vividly to mind that most famous victim of the Holocaust, Anne Frank, born Anneliese Marie Frank on 12 June 1929 in Frankfurt am Main, three years younger than her sister Margot. Her story continues to inspire.

Germany: Persecution of Jews 1933-1945

 In the Thirties, in post-war Germany, poverty was rife and unemployment high, conditions which enabled Hitler and the Nazis to seize power and blame the national difficulties on the Jews. In view of the poor economic situation and the rampant anti-Semitism nationally, Otto and Edith Frank, Anne’s parents, decided to leave Germany and move the family to Amsterdam where Otto founded a company dealing in pectin, Opektra, a gelling agent used in jam-making. The move was successful and the family enjoyed life in Amsterdam where they                                                                                                          learned Dutch, made friends and Anne                                                                                                          happily atttended a Dutch school near                                                                                                         her home.                                                                                                                                  

Behind the enemy powers, the Jew

In 1939, on September 1st, when Anne was ten, Nazi Germany invaded Poland and launched WW2, with the Nazis invading the Netherlands on May 10 1940, when the small Dutch army quickly surrendered. Almost immediately, anti-Jewish legislation commenced in the Netherlands and Jewish lives quickly became difficult and soon, dangerous. For instance, Jews could no longer visit parks, cinemas, non-Jewish shops and could not own any business while Jewish children could only attend separate
Jewish schools. Otto Frank, like many others, had to relinquish his company, while Jews were forced to wear a yellow Star of David on their clothes; outward symbols of the Jew-hatred which led to the systematic deportation of Jews from the Netherlands. When Margot, Anne’s big sister, received a call-up to report for re-location to a labour camp in Nazi Germany on 5 July 1942, this was a clear warning which alerted Otto who brought forward his plan for his family to hide in an annexe of his canal-side business premises at Prinsengracht 263 which they did on Monday 6 July..  He had already begun furnishing a hiding place there. This achterhuis [Secret Annexe] was a three-storey space entered from a landing above the Opektra offices where trusted colleagues and employees of Otto worked. The Franks’ apartment was left in deliberate disarray to suggest a hasty departure and Otto left a note hinting the family had gone to Switzerland, also asking their neighbours, the Kupers, to take care of their cat, Moortje. The door to the achterhuis was finally covered with a heavy bookcase.  

Otto Frank at the entrance to the achterhuis hidden
behind the bookcase. 1964. He had lost Anne,
Margot and Edith almost twenty years earlier.

Four employees from Otto’s business, plus the father of one and husband of another, were the sum total of people who knew of the hidden Frank family. This little group comprising Victor Kugler, Johanne Kleieman, Miep Gies, Bep Voskuikl, kept the Franks informed of the war's progres and of any political  developments and supplied them with food and any other requirements.  Anne wrote of their huge help in her diary, and of their dedication to keeping up the Frank morale as they all tried hard to avoid discovery and certain death.              

On 13^th July 1942 the Frank family was joined by the Van Pels family, Hermann, Auguste and 16-year-old Pieter, and in November by Fritz Pfeffer a dentist and family friend.  Tensions quickly developed within the group forced to live in such confined conditions with the shared fear of lethal discovery.   For Anne’s thirteenth birthday on 12 June 1942, Anne had received an autograph book bound with a red and white chequered cloth and with a small lock on the front. She loved it and decided to use it as a diary which she named, Kitty. Many details known of Anne’s wartime life and the restrictions placed upon Dutch Jews by the Nazis, were found in her diary.            

Blue and Yellow Stars of David: Some details:

 On November 23, 1939, Hans Frank, the Nazi Governor-Generral of occupied Poland, decreed that all Jews in Poland over the age of 10 were required to designate themselves as Jewish by wearing a white arm badge with a blue Star of David whenever they went out in public. It was the first time that the Nazis had legally required Jews to distinguish themselves in appearance from the rest of the population. This ruling was later implemented across Nazi-occupied Europe but Frank's order was only the beginning. On September 1, 1941 Reinhard Heydrich ordered all Jews over the age of six in Germany, Alsace, Bohemia-Moravia and the German-occupied areas of Poland, to wear a yellow Star of David in public. This command extended the public labelling of Jews into every part of Nazi-controlled Europe with the exception of Southern France and Denmark. The rule stipulated that the Star must be worn on the left side of Jews' outer clothing, and on their backs for easy public identification. Each badge was supposed to measure four inches in length and the word Jude was written in the local language necessary and used a font to imitate the appearance of Hebraic type.                                                                                                                                      

Soldiers round up Jews from Warsaw Ghetto 1943

    Memorial to Anne and Margot in
Bergen-Belsen

That Perennial Favourite Refugee: Paddington Bear

Paddington on a bench with a marmalade sandwich

 I was surprised, earlier this month, to see a life-size Paddington Bear gracing a bench in the middle of the Apex here, the main shopping centre in Bury St Edmunds. Since then, for perhaps nearly a month now, I have enjoyed seeing countless toddlers and slightly older children, sitting, arms around this familiar little figure, ready for a family photo! There is a seemingly universal affection for this special little bear and I set out to discover his heritage!          

Always ready to go, with suitcase and label

In fact, he was created in a story entitled, “A Bear Called Paddington” by the author Michael Bond who had bought a teddy bear which he thought looked rather lonely in a toyshop window, as a stocking-filler for his wife on Christmas Eve, 1956, naming the bear Paddington after Paddington Station near where they lived. He modelled the refugee status of the bear on World War 11 evacuees, most of whom had been removed from family and familiar surroundings to be sent to live with strangers elsewhere in the country deemed to be safer. He remembered seeing evacuees in transit during the war, all wearing labels with their names and home addresses pinned to them and clutching little suitcases. He also became acquainted with some Jewish children who had sought sanctuary in the UK from the Nazis in Europe.  Similar to the British evacuees and those fleeing the Nazis,  Paddington had sought refuge from his native Peru and was sent to London by his Aunt Lucy with a label attached to him saying, “Please look after this bear.”  He arrived complete with suitcase which he always carried, and a love of marmalade sandwiches. Paddington’s polite label, I now recall delightedly, was re-used, probably fifty years ago, perhaps almost twenty years after his creation, by a then great friend of my youngest daughter, Cait.  When Adele was staying with us, I took a little family party on a day trip to London and to my amusement, Adele, wore a brown luggage label attached to her coat all day, which said, “Please look after this bear.” She told me it was Very Important.    

Paddington with his favourite sandwiches

Paddington became enormously popular and, as the nation took him to their heart, sales of Bond’s books soared, and he was eventually enabled to leave his full-time job at the BBC in 1965 to write full-time and begin to produce what became his wonderful legacy. In BBC Two’s Paddington, The Man Behind the Bear it was revealed that in 2010, in a letter written to the Paddington Film producer, Rosie Allison, Michael had told how Jewish children had also come to live in his home from Nazi Germany: “We took in some Jewish children who often sat in front of the fire every evening, quietly crying, because they had no idea what had happened to their parents, and neither did we, at the time. It's the reason why Paddington arrived with the label round his neck."

Paddington enables the Bond family to live here
in an elegant part of London,
at 32, Windsor Gardens

 We can easily summarise Paddington’s character and appearance in a few words: He always wears a blue duffel coat and a red hat and always, always carries a suitcase. He is a well-meaning but accident-prone bear who is unfailingly polite and generally happy, especially when marmalade sandwiches are available! Remarkably, he has two birthdays like Queen Elisabeth did; one on June 25th and one on December 25th. His official name is Paddington Brown and amazingly, it took him a Very Long Time to be granted a British passport which did not arrive until October 2024.

Paddington gets commercial

In fact, on reflection, Paddington is a powerful symbol of what refugees can bring to their host countries when they are welcomed and supported, even if they do arrive in unplanned and irregular ways. With the right help, people seeking safety can contribute a great deal to the U.K. There are many people and several organisations in the UK working to help refugees already here, to settle in and live independently, such as Right To Remain and the Anti-Racism Movement plus the Migrant Rights Network. End Mass Migration which has links to Reform, led by Nigel Farage, and the Brexit Party in the meantime are seeking to create a mass movement against immigration as are Patriotic Alternative and UKIP. These right-wing groups seek to permit limited immigration of white people who share the same ethnic background or can prove British ancestry, though white South Africans would be among the groups granted asylum due to their “descent from European nations.” Happily, the pro-immigrant groups outnumber the anti.

 .                

Michael Bond, Creator of Paddington Bear, Dies at 91

The author’s stories about a plucky, marmalade-loving bear sold more than 35 million copies worldwide

                                Headline in June 2017.

Michael Bond with his famous creation.

Paddington and his British passport.

Happiness

 

I recently happened to stumble across an online clutch of quotes on Happiness after the arrival of the latest issue of Philosophy Now which has prompted this blog. I did notice a certain predictability and mundanity in the quotes which freqently mentioned helping others or putting oneself last. I feel cynical writing that but it also reminded me of how very difficult it is to write convincingly about states of mind. Although I never actually ask myself," Am I happy?" it occurs to me from time to time how very lucky I am, at my age and stage, to have a loving and kind family who stay in touch, visit from time to time, and who somehow, make me feel loved in a quiet, unspoken way. Although most of my week sees me alone, happily reading, enjoying myself on my laptop, writing occasional blogs which take longer to compose as the years totter past; yet I never actually feel alone as in 'lonely'. My local daughter and grand-daughter drop in most days, which is a delight and which reminds me of how glad I am that I did persuade myself to leave Beloved Brugge to live in Bury St Edwards which has quieter pretensions and practices but offers a similar sanctuary. A fruitful and happy move.

December 25th 2025

Going out, i.e. to go somewhere specifically to listen to music  or go to a lecture, or to participate in a discussion, or of course, join my bi-weekly Mah Jong sessions............ all of these occasions are so very welcome and enjoyable though, lately, rather harder to access as walking itself becomes more effortful. It takes determination and tenacity these days to just go to, and do, the things I want to do although I don't have anything wrong with me physically at all!! Except, of course, the unsteady balance which has settled down now to being the norm! Yesterday I saw a local physio who specialises in balance and she advised I drink much more water as I was definitely dehydrated and this might well be contributing to my unsteady balance.She also said that she hoped to be as good as me when she was 91! Frankly, it is difficult to remember to celebrate that which is left; I do tend to demur against the thinning hair, the vocabulary lapses, the slow and slightly unsteady gait, the thickening torso, the absolute ease of forgetting exactly what the hell I was going to do, or write, within minutes of originally deciding! But these developments on the less-than-positive side do not, curiously, add up to discontent; perhaps to occasional irritation or to a resigned 'That's life' kind of weary acknowledgement and acceptance!

 I have just read a refreshing article in the current issue of

Boethius pictured speaking to students.

Philosophy Now entitled, 'Deconstructing Happiness' and discover encouragingly that to Socrates, philosophy was basically about finding the best way to live a life. He watched how life functions within society and examined the influences that shape it. But Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius  [480-524 CE] tries to give a clear picture of what happiness essentially is. He rejects false hopes and through transparent honesty, shows a path that can lead to satisfaction, not to universal fulfillment but to individual contentment. And individual contentment sounds to me like happiness! He asks us merely to consider what we mean by the nature of happiness.  "Do you really hold dear that kind of happiness which is destined to pass away? Do you really value the  presence of Fortune when you cannot trust her (Fortune) to stay and when her departure will plunge you into sorrow?"   Boethius argues that nothing that is ephemeral, transient and temporary can be of any value in terms of happiness for when that happiness ends it is followed by despair which is so hard to bear. He deduces that Fortune's smile, happiness, is a warning of coming disaster. Oh dear; this feels like a fearfulness bred in adverse situations or destructive relationships which some of us, perhaps many of us, experience but nonetheless chiefly cope with, calling up an inner strength perhaps fortified by that same happiness.

Soren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher
"The door of happiness opens inward".

Michel de Montaigne 1533-!592 "We should have
wife, children, goods, and above all health if we can

The essay referred to, looks at the opinions of several philosophers who separately consider how humans strive to find happiness and then, when they actually attain it, realising how fragile and temporary it can be, must work hard to keep it. Basically, the underlying positive conclusion seems to be that to obtain true contentment we must rely on our own internal resources. And perhaps we sensed that all along, for we all know individuals who seem to be thoroughly happy, grounded, capable people who cope well with the ups and downs of life, and others who too readily translate Life's turbulence into a patchwork of misery and apprehension.  Probably the truth of the matter is that there is a mosaic within each of us, with part of us capable of surfing happiness completely, when it is available while striving to deal with the drought of melancholy when it inevitably enters, stage left. In fact, happiness is part of the human condition; it is present in all of us and to access it, we merely need an open mind to reach within ourselves to locate it and share it.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                

 "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator, with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." U.S. Declaration of Independence"  July 4th 1776. 

The optimism of the cover of 
Philosophy Now
is invigorating despite the misery of the
banner holder, Schopenhauer!

Joy!

William Tyndale 1494-!536

William Tyndale 1494-1536

I recently saw an online reference to the Tyndale500 marking the 500^th anniversary of William Tyndale’s New Testament translation, with celebrations in 2025 for the printing of the Cologne Fragment** and extending into 2026 to salute the publication and subsequent smuggling of the full New Testament into England. There will be a variety of events, exhibitions and publications by the Tyndale Society and St Paul’s Cathedral. I did know the famous Tyndale name but far too little about this truly important scholar, linguist and thinker of the early sixteenth century.

Tyndale portrayed in stained glass in Hertford College Chapel
where he was awarded his B.A. in 1512.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was the first person to translate the Bible into English from its original Greek and Hebrew [in his case, Latin] and the first to print the Bible in English, which he did in exile. He modelled his Bible on the example of Luther who had recently published his translation from the Greek of the first Bible in German. Tyndale had become convinced that all people needed and deserved to be able to read the Bible in their own language but the idea of giving the laity access to the word of God outraged the clerical establishment in England. Tyndale was warned that his actions were threatening his life, then, when he continued to speak and write, he was condemned, hunted, finally betrayed and eventually murdered. However, his masterly Biblical translations form the linguistic basis of all English Bibles subsequently, including the revered "King James Bible", many of whose finest passages were taken unchanged, though unacknowledged, from Tyndale's work. Famous phrases from the 1611 King James Bible such as, 'Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling," have echoed in the writings and sermons of countless others but these phrases were coined in the 1530s by Tyndale, not in 1611 by Shakespeare. In fact, the King James Bible has contributed 257 phrases to the English language, more than any other source. Expressions such as, 'a fly in the ointment'; 'a thorn in the side' and 'Do we see eye to eye?' still in use in everyday English, originated in the King James Bible, courtesy of Tyndale.

Tyndale Time-line

John Rogers printed the first Bible in English
published under the pseudonym,
Thomas Matthew

2026 is the quincentenary year of Tyndale's birth, and an appropriate time to consider the story of his life and his immense achievements while exploring his influence on the theology, literature and humanism of Renaissance and Reformation Europe. Born in England, educated at Oxford, trained in logic and an able linguist speaking seven languages, Tyndale was eventually ordained as a priest. When he decided to translate the Bible into English, he knew that it was impossible to do such dangerous work in England where translating the Bible into English was punishable by death. For instance, the Government executed one woman and six men by burning them at the stake for the crime of teaching their own children the Ten Commandments, the Apostles’ Creed and the Lord’s Prayer in English. The clergy were the only ones allowed access to the Bible yet most of them did not even take advantage of this privilege. “I suffer because the priests be unlearned …. Yet many of them can scarcely read,” Tyndale wrote. He moved to Germany, living in exile there and in the Low Countries while he translated and printed first the New Testament and then half of the Old Testament in English. These were widely circulated and denounced in England where the Church and aristocracy certainly did not wish ‘ordinary people’ to be able to read or understand any teachings of the Church except through the medium of the cleric. Scripture was to be kept at arm's length from the common people, mediated through clergy and liturgy with Latin functioning as the chief barrier.

One evening at an aristocrat’s dinner table, Tyndale got into an argument with a high-ranking clergyman and as usual, he referred repeatedly to the appropriate Scriptural text. “We were better to be without God’s law than to be without the Pope’s,” the exasperated clergyman shouted as he pounded the table, thus revealing his true belief to the aristocratic family gathered around the table. Tyndale regarded this remark as blasphemy and gave what has become acknowledged as his most famous remark. “I defy the Pope and all his laws and if God spare my life ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plow, shall know more of the Scriptures than thou dost." 

Vilvoorde Castle near Brussels

Such talk was heretical but how difficult today to relate to the strong emotions involved in these passions of both Church and society. Yet Tyndale continued to write from abroad, publishing polemics in defence of the principles of the English Reformation. Four years after Tyndale had returned to Antwerp, his whereabouts were betrayed by a friend, Henry Phillips, and he was eventually seized in Antwerp,  imprisoned in Vilvoorde Castle near Brussels, for 16 months, charged with heresy then strangled, immediately before his corpse was burnt at the stake in 1536 in front of a gathering of secular and clerical authorities. His last words were, "Lord, open the King of England's eyes."

Woodcut of Tyndale's death from
Foxe's Book of Martyrs 1563

David Daniell, a leading authority on Tyndale, has discussed at length Tyndale’s achievements as biblical translator, analysing his stylistic influence on writers from Shakespeare on. He argues that Tyndale was a brilliant wordsmith who revolutionised English by grounding it in a powerful but plain Saxon base, using short sentences and strong verbs, making the Bible accessible to all while shaping English prose into what became the global exemplar for the English language. He transformed a “poor and irrelevant island language” into a European prose style. Daniell highlights Tyndale’s skill in crafting memorable phrases, using English syntax to convey deep meaning to make the Bible’s language natural, and asserts that he, Tyndale, was a ‘conscious craftsman with an ear for the rhythm and music of English, imbuing his prose with beauty and meaning’. His translation formed the basis, now estimated at 80%-90%, of the King James Version, embedding his phrases and style into the very fabric of the English language as seen in expressions like, ‘fight the good fight’ or ‘my brother’s keeper’ and 'let there be light'. It was he who gave us 'Jehovah' as the personal name of  God in the Old Testament.

Left, 1525 version; right, 1526 version
of the Tyndale New Testament 
See notes below

A few months after his death, his friend, John Rogers, printed the first English Bible including all of Tyndale's translations and a copy was sent to Archbishop Cranmer who insisted that "the King's most gracious license" was granted to this translation. John Rogers published his translation under the pseudonym Thomas Matthew to try to protect his own safety in view of King Henry's earlier condemnation of Tyndale's work. This first English printed Bible has henceforth been known as the Matthew Bible. 

Frontispiece of the King James Bible 1611

** Thc Cologne Fragment: The printing of the first edition of Tyndale's New Testament was interrupted by authorities seeking to shut down his work. He then produced the New Testament again in early 1526 and this edition did not include the side notes and cross references of his 1525 version. This Cologne Fragment is all that is left of the original 1525 New Testament and gives a glimps of what the now lost oiginal 1525 New Testament looked like. It was probably published by Peter Quentel in Cologne in 1525 with woodcuts by Anton von Worms. 

 Original Copy

There is only one copy of the Cologne Fragment known to exist, which is kept in the Grenville Collection at the British Library. All that has survived are 31 pages which contain Tyndale’s Prologue, the contents page, a woodcut of St Matthew, and chapters 1-22 of Matthew’s Gospel including side notes and cross-references. A facsimile edition was published by Bloomsbury in 1871.

 

Marmot Principles

Professor Sir Michael Marmot

 

Professor Sir Michael Marmot is a world leader on the causes of avoidable unfairness in health outcomes, [health inequities]. Over the last 50 years he has led numerous research studies for governments, United Nations' agencies and NGOs on the main drivers of health and longevity. His Institute of Health Equity [IHE] at University College, London is the world's leading global think tank on the subject.

Sir William Beveridge's report in 1942 [referred to below] identified the five 'giants' of social problems in Britain: idleness, ignorance, disease, squalor and want. It was this hugely important document that laid the foundation for the Welfare State in Britain, presenting a tantalising future vision for a nation struggling to escape the seemingly endless horrors and deprivations of WW2. Evidence subsequently showed that one of these giants, health and disease, was strongly influenced by the other four and this explains the thrust of many Marmot reports which reveal why unfair avoidable health gaps, i.e. health inequalities, exist and suggests ways to remove them.

The situation in 2019 shows little variation in 2025.

Britain's health record is not impressive. Until 2010, life expectancy in the U.K. increased at the rate of roughly one year in every four years. Sadly from around 2010 for a decade, the rate of increase slowed then almost stopped and one recent result of this was the relatively ineffectual UK response to Covid which allowed Covid-19 to exacerbate health inequalities. From 2009 to 2023 life expectancy in the UK did not improve at all and this in a wealthy society which enjoyed the implied promise, the unspoken assumption, that life in general, particularly in health, would continue to improve.

Furthermore, as one might expect, health is seen to be strongly linked to deprivation. In most regions of England excluding London, life expectancy has been falling among people living in the most deprived areas. Ease of access to healthcare cannot be a major cause as estimates suggest that variations in health care are responsible for no more than 20% of the total. The main reason for this link can only be attributed to the social determinants of health, Beveridge's other four 'giants'. In 2024 the Institute of Health Equity published a calculation that if everyone in England had the low mortality rates of the people living in the least deprived 10% of areas, there would have been one million fewer deaths over the decade after 2009.

Between poor people living in deprived areas, and the rich living in greater affluence, there is a social gradient which means that at every step up, people get healthier and live longer. In the decade after 2009 one million people lived shorter lives than they could, or should have, which suggests that a Government which cares, must work to flatten the social gradient. Before 2009, the social gradient had been flatter but austerity made it substantially steeper and Marmot's IHE [Institute of Health Equity] calculated that 148,000 more people died as a result. One way in which austerity harmed health is the regressive way in which central government funded local government with the most deprived areas receiving the greatest funding cuts. The IHE promotes the principle of 'proportionate universalism', with most help going to those in most need but it discovered, post 2010, that the opposite had been happening.

Eight Marmot Principles.

These were developed for the first Marmot Review in 2010 and are based on evidence about the main drivers of health inequities found locally, nationally and globally.

1. Give every child the best start in life.

2. Enable everyone to maximise their capabilities with control over their lives.

3. Create fair employment and good work for all.

4. Ensure a healthy standard of living for everyone.

5. Create and develop healthy and sustainable places and communities.

6. Strengthen the role and impact of ill-health prevention.

7. Tackle racism, discrimination and their outcomes.

8. Pursue environmental sustainability and health equity together.

Andy Burnham, Mayor of Manchester

The first time I read the list above, I was both aghast and impressed at the extent of action demanded by Marmot, of local councils, government bodies, commerce, education, municipal endeavours, voluntary bodies. The breadth and depth of guidance offered by the Marmot Principles and the firm imperatives therein are superb but much education in this area is needed. However, arising from Marmot's ground-breaking work there are now over 50 places developing Marmot Communities in the UK. Public Health Scotland is working with IHE to develop a national health strategy and collaborating with three Scottish Marmot places: Aberdeen, North Ayrshire and South Lanarkshire. In Gwent, Marmot initiatives are underway, while the government of Wales has declared it is working to become a Marmot Nation. Legal and General are funding the Marmot Health Equity Network, making available £3 million for community and voluntary sector projects to improve health equity around the country. In Greater Manchester, under the inspiring leadership of the Mayor, Andy Burnham, IHE worked with ten local authorities, the health sector, social  services and the Vice-Chancellor of the University. At every level local, regional, national, it is inspiring to see the leadership provided by elected politicians and officials in establishing the Marmot Principles.